(Translated by Sherwin Lu)
EDITOR’S NOTE: The author Mr. Yuzhong Zhai (翟玉忠) is general editor of the New Legalist website, Chinese and English sections. This is a condensed translation of another excerpt from his book in Chinese (《中国拯救世界—应对人类危机的中国文化》, China Saves the World – Chinese culture being the solution to current human crises)，Chapter 7 entitled “The unification of all human knowledge systems”，Section 3.
A comparative understanding of the four tiers of human thinking patterns provides an appropriate perspective in viewing the development of all human civilizations and that of the general human history and will help bring about a harmonious and peaceful human world.
THE TEXT
Since the beginning of human existence, there have been four tiers of thinking patterns: primitive thinking, dualistic thinking, Yin-Yang dialectic thinking, and direct perception of the Supreme Way, which is the highest wisdom. They are not totally opposed to each other but tend to co-exist in a major civilization, while different civilizations may be typically representative of different thinking patterns.
I. Primitive Thinking
The foundation for the study of the thinking pattern adopted by primitive tribal people was laid by French sociologist Levy-Bruhl (1857~1939) in his book Primitive Mentality (English Trans. 1923). According to him, primitive thinking was mainly concrete thinking, i.e., basically without using abstract terms. It was based on collective images that were passed on from generation to generation, leaving profound imprints on every member of the collective and incurring in each of them either respect or fear or worship towards the related object, depending on the circumstances. The existence of these images did not depend on any one of the individuals.
Primitive people paid little attention to the law of contradiction in logic and the relation between the collective images were not determined by rules of logic. The demarcation line between the subject and the object was indistinct: the thought and what was being thought about were mutually mingled..
II. Dualistic vs. Dialectic Thinking
Primitive thinking was the basic thought pattern of primitive peoples before they entered the agricultural era. After that, the evolution of human thinking pattern branched into Yin-Yang dialectic thinking represented by the Chinese and dualistic thinking prevailing in the West. The two patterns share in the clear distinction between the subject and the object. But the former views all dichotomies as unities and the entire cosmos as an organically related whole, while the latter thinks of the division into two almost as something absolute, in which pattern the cosmos can be mechanically and infinitely divided and reduced to some “elementary particles” – hence the term “reductionism”.
For the long past, many people have been holding that Chinese Yin-Yang dialectic is a simple one as compared with Western dialectic. However, with the rise of system theory and quantum theories, it has been noticed by more and more people that Yin-Yang dialectical thinking based on organic holism has assumed so much “modernity”.
Western dialectic has been developed in the framework of a dualistic worldview and in its mainstream form assumes the Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis formula as illustrated by Hegel’s famous example of grain-sprout-new grains, the sprout being the antithesis of grain and the new grains the synthesis of the old grain and sprout. Here between the grain and the sprout is not the same dialectical relation as that between the Yin and the Yang as represented by the Chinese Taiji Yin-Yang Double-Fish Diagram, which is one of mutual dependence, infiltration, complementariness and transformation.
The Yin and the Yang in Chinese dialectic are mutually dependent and counteracting at the same time, which is the way of all changes through dynamic interactions towards balance. Hence, it is said in the Book of Changes that “The mutually balancing movements of the Yin and the Yang represent the Way of the world. To follow it is to do good; helping it along is in the nature of things.” (The Great Appendix, I-5)
Mr. Pu Pang (庞朴), a Chinese scholar, interpreted this basic category of Yin-Yang in Chinese philosophy like this: “You can understand it as a unity of the opposites Yin and Yang. But that is not all; you should also be aware that sometimes Yin, and at other times Yang, has the whip hand, i.e., their relation is always in a dynamic state. Still, this is not all; their movements should not be seen as straightforward – they are actually cyclical, or called ‘cyclic changes’, meaning that an end is a new beginning and a beginning starts from an end. But again, this is not all; the ‘cyclic changes’ should be viewed as spiraling upwards. How do we know they are ‘spiraling upwards’? We know it from the two ensuing sentences: ‘To follow it is to do good; helping it along is in the nature of things.’ Not only ‘to follow’, but also ‘helping it along’; this implies some deeper mening.“ (《中国文化十一讲》，中华书局，2008年，第41页。)
What Mr. Pang says above, however, “is not all” either. Classical Chinese theories, whether on political economy or on medicine, share the same principle: “The way to cope with changes is to guide them towards balance” (Yellow Emperor’s Four Canons, Chap. 1.) That is to say, the Dao, or the Supreme Way, lies in the dynamic balance between Yin and Yang. Probably because of the influence of the Western theory of evolution, Mr. Pang sees “cyclic changes spiraling upwards”. But the concept of change as “endless succession of birth and rebirth” (“生生之谓易”, The Great Appendix, I-5) in Chinese philosophy is not a kind of “vector”: It does not have any implication of “progress” as is innate in the linear way of thinking adopted by Westernphilosophy.
In fact, ancient Chinese philosophers were always opposed to any argument involving dualistic polarity (there being no word in their diction implying such polarity). Han Fei called such arguments as “flippant and wordy” (积辩累辞) and “absurd and tactless” (离理失术) “contentions between two extremes (两末之议)”. (Han Fei Zi, Chap. 40.) History has been full of melodrama: the development of Western learning has always been hinged on such dualistic “contentions between two extremes” as idealism vs. materialism in philosophy, market vs. planning in economics, and what not.
To illustrate such “contentions between two extremes”, the book Han Fei Zi cites the following story (Chap. 37): Duke P`ing of Chin asked Shu Hsiang whether it was the abilities of the ministers or the ability of the ruler that had helped Duke Huan of Ch`i bring All-under-Heaven under one rule. In reply Shu Hsiang said it was the abilities of the ministers, while Musician K`uang insisted that it was due to the ruler’s ability. Then Han Fei went on to prove his argument against both with numerous facts from history: It was neither entirely due to the ability of the ruler nor entirely due to the abilities of the ministers. So, the replies of both Shu Hsiang and Musician K`uang were equally eccentric views. (For details see Yuzhong Zhai & Sherwin Lu: Dichotomies OK, Dualism No, Part II.)
History shows that Chinese Yin-Yang dialectic is not “simple” at all and even contains elements of top-level thinking or wisdom directly derived from the Supreme Way.
III. Direct Perception of the Dao
To gain direct perception of the Supreme Way, or the highest wisdom, one needs to practice inner cultivation. Guan Zi points out: “Bad posture means absence of morality; inner restlessness signifies lack of character cultivation. Correct one’s outward form and cultivate one’s inner moral sense in line with Heavenly benevolence and Earthly righteousness, and one would gradually reach the top level of wisdom commanding a clear perception of everything. Keep a serene mind without failure, guard one’s senses against disturbances from external things and one’s mind against those from the senses – this is called inner accomplishment.” And he defines a sage as “one who suffers no distracting thoughts inside, nor evil disturbance from outside, who has a perfect inner soul and a perfect outward form, who is not harmed by natural calamities nor by human tricks ”. (《管子·内业第四十九》)
Regarding the importance of inner cultivation, Gui Gu Zi (《鬼谷子·卷下·本经阴符七术》) says: When one has too much desire, his mind would be distracted, his will weakened and thus his thoughts would not flow smoothly. If one’s mind is concentrated, he would not have too much desire, and then his will not weaken, and then his thoughts would not be impeded. When one’s thoughts are unimpeded, his temperament would be gentle and compliant, and then his mind would not be disturbed by anything.
As is different from the preceding three ways of thinking, awareness of the Dao goes beyond thoughts and language. It can be attained only by direct realization through inner contemplation. The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment (《圆觉经》) says: “To speculate through thinking on the world that is experienced by a perfectly enlightened person is an impossibility, just like trying to set the Xumi Mountain on fire by strewing glowworms over it.” – As there is no fire in the glow of glowworms!
The Buddhist monk named De Shan (德山) of Tang dynasty, after awaking to the truth, set on fire the annotations (《青龙疏钞》) to the Diamond Sutra (《金刚经》), which he wrote before that, while making the following famous remarks with a sigh: “Such an abstruse discussion, no matter how thorough, is but like a thin hair in the infinite void; such worldly wisdom, however exhaustive, is but like a drop of water in a deep gully.”
What is then the original nature, the original mind that is beyond thought? Yuanyin the Elderly (元音老人) says, “Sakyamuni Buddha brings out the truth in two simple sentences: ‘Triloka (the division into the three regions) hinges on the mind; the distinction between things, on consciousness. (三界唯心，万法唯识。)’ In more specific terms, that is to say, all sentient beings are born with Buddha nature, which is not produced or destroyed, not defiled or pure, not coming or going, with no perceptual attributes but intuitively and omnipotently perceptive; which is not unenlightened or enlightened, and not earthly or heavenly in nature. It is only because of their lack of awareness and experience that all living creatures, not knowing that the indescribable Being perceives itself, that is, the perceived and the perceiver are one, not two – because of that, all living creatures mistake such perception as realized through thinking and its innate perceptiveness or light of wisdom as comes from conscientious efforts at perceiving, thus dividing the actual oneness of perceived-perceiver into an opposition between the perceived and perceiver as if they are two separable, parallel, and mutually determined entities.” (《略论明心见性》，宗教文化出版社，2007年，第15页。) To understand mental consciousness and the true nature of Being, one needs to seize the moment when “one thought is just gone while another is yet to rise”, grasp the intuitive perception at that moment, and carefully keep it intact all the time, through self-cultivation, when walking, standing, sitting, reclining, meditating, or chanting, till merging into the Dao and attaining supreme wisdom.
To view all existence with the original mind, one has to overcome distracting thoughts and purify one’s mind. Wang Yangming (王阳明) compared human conscience, or the original mind, to a clear mirror hanging on high and revealing all human affectations and tricks. He says: “A gentleman learns things for his own sake -- not in order to guard against being duped by others but rather to never deceive one’s own conscience. When not deceiving, one’s conscience is not a fake but sincere; sincerity leads to clear openness. When one is self-confident, his conscience, being free of misgivings, is open and clear; clear openness leads to sincerity. As openness and sincerity promote each other, good conscience stays perceptive and illuminative. Being illuminative and perceptive is like a clear mirror hanging on high, revealing without fail whatever, good or evil, comes under its light. Why so? It is because, when one is not deceptive but sincere, he would not tolerate others’ deceptiveness and can readily discern it; because, when one is self-confident and has a clear and open conscience, he cannot tolerate others’ insincerity and can readily perceive it.” (（《传习录·答欧阳崇一》.）
Wang Yangming was well known for his notable exploits, which should be accredited to his accomplishment in self-inner cultivation. Just as a Qing official historian’s pointed comment says, “Wang Shouren (Wang Yangming’s real name - translator) was first known for his righteousness. When later he was assigned frontier defense duties, he raised the competency of the army and, together with other scholar officers, wiped out bandits who had remained at large for many years and brought rebellious vassal states under control. Throughout the Ming dynasty, no other scholar officers were so competent as Shouren in managing the army and winning military victories. In times of difficulties and crises, he was all the more able to stay calm and use his best judgment. This was possible not only due to his natural endowments but because of his accomplishment in self-inner cultivation as well.” (《明史·王守仁传》) |
